Psychological Basis Of Behavior Essay

Until recently the names of psychological affections were not so clearly defined. Then advanced imaging techniques made it workable to see various argonas of the pass and pinpoint atomic number 18as that go behavior. It has been long k direct that the headspring uses chemical messengers called neurotransmitters for signaling during its various processes. Advances in neuromedicine revealed that a pot of neurological and psychological disorders know a basis in imbalances among various neurotransmitters in the brain.Diseases manage Parkinsons, Schizophrenia and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder atomic number 18 only a few where administering drugs that controlled levels of various neurotransmitters in the brain could control the malady symptoms and in some cases even provide a redress. Indeed, it was the husking of these pharmacological agents that led to the discovery of newer agents that could control various neurological disorders by manipulating levels of neurotransmitte rs. Development of various drugs for schizophrenia was done on the basis of the position that they had the ability to block dopamine receptors.In addition it was noticed that at that place was also an increased number of dopamine receptors present in these patient roles1. Similarly, in patients who suffered form Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) an abnormality in the neurotransmitter serotonin was concerned and it was visualizen that drug therapy that did not affect 5-HT receptors was ineffective in the discussion of OCD6. Parkinsons disorder resembling schizophrenia also is due to an abnormality in dopamine levels but in Parkinsons dopamine levels wrick depleted4.Parkinsons disease is a movement disorder caused by the depletion of dopamine produced in the substantia nigra, a part of the brain that is responsible for voluntary movements of the body11. Parkinsons disease is a neurodegenerative disease that affects 1% of the population. Its pathophysiology involves degenerat ion of substantia nigra. This portion is responsible for movements in the body. Various hypotheses experience been proposed concerning the causes of the disease and include contagious factors, environ psychological factors and viruses.Amongst these genetic factors argon con lookred the most most-valuable and mutations in various genes have been place that ar connected to Parkinsons disease. Genes that have been implicated atomic number 18 PINK-1, DJ-1, and LRRK2 and it is thought that in addition to hereditary viruses and toxins argon thought to cause theses mutations4. Parkinsons disease is characterized by a fine pin-rolling tremor of the hands, rigidity, bradykinesia, an expressionless submit called a mask deal face and a parkinsonian gait characterized by small steps and reduced swing of the arms.Additional symptoms whitethorn be present and include difficulty in chewing and swallowing, depression, fatigue, dementia, speech problems, constipation, urinary problems and orthostatic hypotension7. Symptoms vary from patient to patient and can also have drastic emotional consequences for the patient. Diagnosis is often difficult as on that point are no tests available and is usually made on write up and examination of the nervous system. Various manipulation options are available and are mainly aimed at increasing the levels of dopamine in the brain.These include Levodopa, which is a precursor of dopamine and the nerve cells use synthesize dopamine. Other drugs like bromocriptine, apomorphine and pramipexole act by imitating the activity of dopamine4. There is no definitive cure for this disease and the treatment is only symptomatic. Adjuvant therapy whitethorn be wedded to relieve symptoms such as depression. Schizophrenia is an former(a)(a) disorder that is caused by an imbalance between dopamine levels. The difference is that spirited levels of dopamine are found and the disease has mainly psychiatric manifestations.The cause of schizophrenia as yet remains unknown and this has been hampered largely by the different subtypes of the disease presenting a large variety of symptoms and involving different areas of the brain. It is also a feature of diseases like Alzheimers and Huntingtons disease9. Schizophrenia is characterized by auditory and visual hallucinations, delusions in which the patient thinks that his thoughts are being controlled externally and paranoid behavior believe someone is poisoning him, disorders of movement, cognitive dysfunction and emotional symptoms such as lack of interest in surroundings and social withdrawal2.Newer research has suggested that mountain with schizophrenia may experience an inability to odor certain items suggesting a disorder in the orbito facade region of the brain and surprisingly this sensory shortfall has also been found in patients with Parkinsons disease10. Other studies indicate that abnormalities in the amygdalia a region of the brain dealing with psychological processe s may cause schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders8. though the cause is still questionable it has been seen that schizophrenia runs in families thus suggesting a genetic factor.Environmental factors and accidental injury during birth have also been suggested as causative factors. In the recent agents used to treat schizophrenia like chlorpromazine and haloperidol block both D1 and D2 receptors and caused extra pyramidal side effects2. But the newer agents like clozapine have a high affinity for D1 receptors and thus do not cause unwanted extrapyramidal side effects. Other agents that have fewer side effects are risperidone and olanzepine and are very effective in imperative symptoms.All of these agents act by reducing levels of dopamine in the brain thus enabling the control of symptoms. The genetic predisposition to schizophrenia is now widely known. Family history of mental ailments such as schizoaffective disorders, bipolar disorders and depression, are a very stron g indication and predisposition to developing schizophrenia. However, knotty researches in the pattern of schizophrenic disorders among monozygotic twins have not been able to establish the full authenticity of the claim. The scientists claim that schizophrenia has been associated with the unsure gene or 5-HTT gene.Currently, having a schizophrenic geneticity is only the first link further development is dependant on other factors as well. (Schizophrenia. com, 2007)12 some(prenominal) claim that there exists a link between schizophrenia and the environment. This is base on the fact that increased risk of schizophrenia within families cannot be singly attributed to the cause of it alone. The environmental factors that are thought to playing period an meaning(a) fiber in causing schizophrenia include psychosocial, biological and corporal factors, which are in effect from birth till maturity.It is now claimed that the interaction of the genetic and the social or environmental factors are very important in the development of disease in schizophrenic patients. (Tsuang, 2001) Many of the environmental effects that come into play do so in preterm and in early childhood. The highest contribution seems to be the state of labor, for example, hypoxia, CNS damage RH incompatibility of the mother and child etc. also, other prenatal factors may include maternal depression, bereavement and flood and famine. Rubella infections and infections of the CNS are also thought to play a very important role in the development of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia. com, 2007)12 Obsessive-compulsive disorder is another psychiatric disorder that has at its cause an imbalance between neurotransmitters. In this case the neurotransmitter is serotonin. The areas of the brain thought to be mixed in this disorder are the revolutionary ganglia and the frontal lobe6. People with OCD have obsessive thoughts and the compulsion to carry egress those thoughts repeatedly3. Patients often have an awareness of their abnormal thought patterns and are upturned by them but are unable to control them.Common symptoms are patients exhibiting rituals and having unwanted thoughts and behavior patterns. Patients may have unwanted thoughts of a cultism of germs or hurting someone called an obsession and compulsions are the acts of carrying out those obsessional thoughts like repeatedly washing and cleaning or repeatedly find out or checking things over and over again3. Sometimes it manifests in conjunction with other psychiatric disorders like schizophrenia and depression. It often resolves when these disorders are treated. It has also been seen with diseases like Parkinsons disease and Huntingtons chorea6.This disorder usually starts in adolescence and the patient is usually aware that he has some psychiatric ailment. The etiology is changeful but Obsessive-compulsive disorder also has a genetic component. Though environmental factors are also a major cause, head detriment ha s also been implicated in certain cases6. Various treatment options are available including behavioral therapy. Drugs called selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors act by delaying the uptake of serotonin into the neuron and thus prolonging its action. This controls the deficiency of serotonin thought to be involved in causing obsessional symptoms.Drugs that are being used include fluoxetine, sertraline, fluvoxamine, paroxetine and clomipramine. Drug therapy used to treat other anxiety disorders is not effective in obsessive-compulsive disorder since it may not target the 5-HT receptors that are used by serotonin. Adams et al (2005)14 inform an up-regulation of serotonin receptors in caudate nuclei of OCD patients. Administration of SSRI drugs was tested in OCD patients. When untreated patients were compared with healthy normal individuals, it was found that cerebral 5-HT (2A) receptors stuffing were high in these patients.However, this difference was diminished when SSRI drug was administered to the patients. Different studies have reported that 5-HT reuptake inhibitors (SRIs) are most successful in treatment of OCD (Mansari & Blier, 2006). This suggests serotonin depletion may be a vital cause of this disease. Normally, serotonin is actively involved in moderating flow of messages from orbital frontal cortex to thalamus via caudate nucleus. Various pharmacological studies have suggested 5-HT concentration in OFC is regulated by 5HT2 like receptors.SRI drugs modify 5-HT receptors regulation of serotonin and therefrom mostly used in treatment of OCD (Mansari & Blier, 2006)15. Delgado and Moreno (1998)16 also reported that these drugs binding potency is related to hallucinogens. Pitterger et al (2006) reported that drugs that reduce elevated glutamate levels in brain might be effective in treatment of OCD. Pitterger et al (2006)17 suggested antiglutamatergic agent riluzole (Rilutek) play vital role in reducing glutamate hyperactivity in the cortico-striato-t halamo-cortical circuitry. Conclusion Overall a link has been found among various mental illnesses.This is evident by the fact that obsessive-compulsive disorder may be present in people who already have Schizophrenia or Parkinsons disease. This overlap suggests that similar areas of the brain are involved in the etiology of these diseases and also that similar neurotransmitters may also be involved. Also interesting is the law of similarity in the deficiency in the sense of smell in both Parkinsons and schizophrenia. As research progresses and advanced neuroimaging techniques become available it will become possible to interlink these diseases to one another. exceptional areas of interest may be the basal ganglia and the amygdalia as they are seen involved in a variety of neurological disorders. Parkinsons disease is a neurological disease, having a progressive nature. There are certain unexpended signs and symptoms that a Parkinson patient presents with these include tremor, rigi dity, akinesia or bradykinesia. Etiologically, Parkinsons disease is found in 1% of the population above 60 long time of age. The ratio increases in people above 70 years of age. Although, also found in women, predominantly affects male gender.The role of environment in causing Parkinsonism is worth mentioning. Carbon mono-oxide and manganese, apart from certain pesticides play the major role in causing the disease. Parkinsonism among old fourth-year people is idiopathic, but familial hereditary pattern can be possible. A lot is not known about the role of genetics and inheritance of this disease, but occurrence in younger ages carries a higher opportunity of familial inheritance. It has been found that schizophrenia and Parkinson disease may share similarity by showing dysfunction of the prefrontal cortical areas of the brain.Also, both these conditions are the result or excess of deficiency of the levels of dopamine, which in turn dictates the treatment plan for such condition s. Similarly, patients suffering from Parkinsons disease may show the presence of obsessive compulsive disorders, and the severity depends upon the length of the disease progression. The apprisal between these three conditions presenting in close relation with each other raise many questions about the progress of each disease, and whether treatments of each condition contain treatments for others as well. (Maia, 2003)13